Social
Psychology / Personality Types:
9 Research Areas in Social Psychology: https://www.verywell.com/research-areas-in-social-psychology-2795913
Personality Traits &
Personality Types: What is Personality?:
Attitudes:
PERSONALITY TYPES:
High-Level Description of the Sixteen Personality Types:
9
Research Areas in Social Psychology
Let's take a look at
some of the major topics that social psychologists investigate in their research. Many of
these topics are related to social influence, social perception, and social
interaction. The following are just a few of the areas of interest within
social psychology.
1.
Social Cognition
Social cognition is concerned with the processing,
storage, and application of social information. This research area is closely
related to the field of cognitive psychology, a research area focusing largely on the
concept of schemas.
Schemas are our general ideas about the world, how things are and
how things work. These mental shortcuts allow us to function without constantly
stopping to interpret everything around us. We also develop associations
between related schemas, which plays an important role in the thought process
and social behavior.
2.
Attitudes and Attitude Change
Another major research
area in social psychology involves the study of attitudes. Social psychologists are interested in the components of
attitudes, how attitudes develop and how attitudes change. Researchers have
described three core components of attitude: an affective component, a
behavioral component, and a cognitive component. Often referred to as the
"ABCs of attitude," these elements describe how we feel, behave, and
understand.
3.
Violence and Aggression
What causes violence
and aggression? Social psychologists are interested in how and why people
engage in violence or act aggressively.
Research in this area
looks at numerous factors that may cause aggression including social variables
and media influences. Researchers often look at the role social learning plays
in producing aggressive behaviors and actions.
4.
Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial behavior is another major research area in social
psychology.
What is prosocial
behavior? Prosocial behaviors are those that involve helping and cooperating.
Researchers often look at why people help others, as well as why they sometimes
refuse to help or cooperate. The bystander effect is an example of a social phenomenon in
the subject area.
Much of the research
in this area was prompted by the murder of a young woman named Kitty Genovese. This case captured national attention when
reports revealed that neighbors had witnessed her attack and murder, but failed
to call the police for help. Research inspired by the case produced a great
deal of information on prosocial behavior and how and why people choose—or
sometimes refuse—to help others.
5.
Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes exist in any social group.
Social psychologists are interested in the origins, causes, and effects of
these types of attitudes and social categorizations. How does prejudice
develop? Why are stereotypes maintained in the face of contrary evidence? These
are just a few of the questions social psychologists seek to answer.
6. Self
and Social Identity
Our perceptions of
social identities and ourselves are another important research area in social
psychology.
How do people come to
know and understand themselves? How do these self-perceptions affect our social
interactions? Social psychologists are interested in learning more about how
this inner life influences our outer lives and social world. Self-awareness,
self-esteem, self-concept, and self-expression are just a few of the factors that
influence our social experience.
7.
Group Behavior
The behavior of groups
is one of the largest research areas in social psychology. Most people realize
that groups tend to behave differently than individuals. These group behaviors
are sometimes beneficial and positive, but they can also be detrimental and
negative.
Social psychologists
often look at topics such as group dynamics, leadership, group decision-making, conflicts, cooperation, and group
influence.
8.
Social Influence
Social psychologists
are also interested in the role that social influence has on behavior and
decision-making. Topics such as the psychology of persuasion, peer pressure, conformity, and obedience are just a few of
those studied in this area of social psychology. Research has helped reveal the
power of social influence and has uncovered ways to help people resist
influence.
9. Interpersonal
Relationships
Social relationships
play a major role in shaping behavior, attitudes, feelings, and thoughts.
Social psychologists study how these interpersonal relationships affect people
by looking at attachment, liking, love, and attraction. How do close
relationships affect individuals? How important are these interpersonal
relationships? These are just a few of the questions social psychologists seek
to explain.
Personality Traits
& Personality Types: What is Personality?
Five major traits underlie personality, according to
psychologists. They are introversion/extroversion, openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.
Credit: carlosgardel | Shutterstock
What makes you who you are as a person? You probably have some
idea of your own personality type — are you bubbly or reserved, sensitive or
thick-skinned? Psychologists who try to tease out the science of who we are
define personality as individual differences in the way people tend to think,
feel and behave.
There are many ways to measure personality, but psychologists
have mostly given up on trying to divide humanity neatly into types. Instead,
they focus on personality traits.
The most widely accepted of these traits are the Big Fivelo
Titanosaur! Field Museum Swaps Dinosaur Skeletons
r place. Credit: Copyright the Field
· Openness
· Conscientiousness
· Extraversion
· Agreeableness
· Neuroticism
Conveniently, you can remember these traits with the handy OCEAN
mnemonic (or, if you prefer, CANOE works, too).
The Big Five are the ingredients that make up each individual's
personality. A person might have a dash of openness, a lot of
conscientiousness, an average amount of extraversion, plenty of agreeableness
and almost no neuroticism at all. Or someone could be disagreeable, neurotic,
introverted, conscientious and hardly open at all. Here's what each trait
entails:
Openness
Openness is shorthand for "openness to experience."
People who are high in openness enjoy adventure. They're curious and appreciate
art, imagination and new things. The motto of the open individual might be
"Variety is the spice of life."
People low in openness
are just the opposite: They prefer to stick to their habits, avoid new
experiences and probably aren't the most adventurous eaters. Changing
personality is usually considered a tough process, but openness is a
personality trait that's been shown to be subject to change in adulthood. In a
2011 study, people who took psilocybin, orhallucinogenic
"magic mushrooms," became more open
after the experience. The effect lasted at least a year, suggesting that it
might be permanent.
Speaking of experimental
drug use, California's try-anything culture is no myth. A study of personality
traits across the United States released in 2013
found that openness is most prevalent on the West Coast.
Conscientiousness
People who are conscientious are organized and have a strong
sense of duty. They're dependable, disciplined and achievement-focused. You
won't find conscientious types jetting off on round-the-world journeys with
only a backpack; they're planners.
People low in
conscientiousness are more spontaneous and freewheeling. They may tend toward
carelessness. Conscientiousness is a helpful trait to have, as it has been
linked to achievement
in school and on the job.
Extraversion
Extraversion
versus introversion is possibly the most recognizable personality trait of the
Big Five. The more of an extravert someone is, the more of a social butterfly
they are. Extraverts are chatty, sociable and draw energy from crowds. They
tend to be assertive and cheerful in their social interactions.
Introverts, on the other
hand, need plenty of alone time, perhaps because their brains process
social interaction differently. Introversion is often
confused with shyness, but the two aren't the same. Shyness implies a fear of
social interactions or an inability to function socially. Introverts can be
perfectly charming at parties — they just prefer solo or small-group
activities.
Agreeableness
Agreeableness measures the extent of a person's warmth and
kindness. The more agreeable someone is, the more likely they are to be
trusting, helpful and compassionate. Disagreeable people are cold and
suspicious of others, and they're less likely to cooperate.
Men who are high in
agreeableness are judged
to be better dancers by women, suggesting that body movement can signal
personality. (Conscientiousness also makes for good dancers, according to the
same 2011 study.) But in the workplace, disagreeable
men actually earn morethan agreeable guys. Disagreeable women didn't
show the same salary advantage, suggesting that a no-nonsense demeanor is
uniquely beneficial to men.
Neuroticism
To understand neuroticism, look no further than George Costanza
of the long-running sitcom "Seinfeld." George is famous for his
neuroses, which the show blames on his dysfunctional parents. He worries about
everything, obsesses over germs and disease and once quits a job because his
anxiety over not having access to a private bathroom is too overwhelming.
George may be high on the
neuroticism scale, but the personality trait is real. People high in
neuroticism worry frequently and easily slip into anxiety and depression. If
all is going well, neurotic people tend to find things to worry about. One 2012
study found that when neurotic people with good salaries earned raises, the
extra income actually
made them less happy.
In contrast, people who are low in neuroticism tend to be
emotionally stable and even-keeled.
Unsurprisingly,
neuroticism is linked with plenty of bad health outcomes. Neurotic people die
younger than the emotionally stable, possibly because they
turn to tobacco and alcohol to ease their nerves.
Possibly the creepiest
fact about neuroticism, though, is that parasites can make you feel that way.
And we're not talking about the natural anxiety that might come with knowing
that a tapeworm has made a home in your gut. Undetected infection by the
parasite Toxoplasma gondii may
make people more
prone to neuroticism, a 2006 study found.
Other personality
measures
Though personality types have fallen out of favor in modern
psychological research as too reductive, they're still used by career
counselors and in the corporate world to help crystallize people's
understanding of themselves. Perhaps the most famous of these is the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. A questionnaire based on the work of early
psychologist Carl Jung sorts people into categories based on four areas:
sensation, intuition, feeling and thinking, as well as
extraversion/introversion.
Sensing and intuition
refer to how people prefer to gather information about the world, whether
through concrete information (sensing) or emotional feelings (intuition).
Thinking and feeling refer to how people make decisions. Thinking types go with
logic, while feeling types follow their hearts.
The Myers-Briggs system is rounded out with the
judging/perception dichotomy, which describes how people choose to interact
with the world. Judging types like decisive action, while perceiving types
prefer open options.
The use of the Myers-Briggs is controversial, as research
suggests that types don’t correlate well with job satisfaction or abilities.
Attitudes
and Behavior
An
attitude is "a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and
behavioral tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or
symbols" (Hogg, & Vaughan 2005, p. 150)
"..a
psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with
some degree of favor or disfavor" (Eagly, & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1)
Attitudes structure
can be described in terms of three components.
- Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders”.
- Behavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.
- Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”.
This model is known as
the ABC model of attitudes.
One of the underlying
assumptions about the link between attitudes and behavior is that of
consistency. This means that we often or usually expect the behavior of a
person to be consistent with the attitudes that they hold. This is called the
principle of consistency.
The principle of
consistency reflects the idea that people are rational and attempt to behave
rationally at all times and that a person’s behavior should be consistent with
their attitude(s). Whilst this principle may be a sound one, it is clear that
people do not always follow it, sometimes behaving in seemingly quite illogical
ways; for example, smoking cigarettes and knowing that smoking causes lung
cancer and heart disease.
There is evidence that
the cognitive and affective components of behavior do not always match with
behavior. This is shown in a study by LaPiere (1934).
Aim
To investigate the
relationship between attitudes and behavior.
Method
LaPiere travelled
round America with a Chinese couple, expecting to meet discrimination as a
result of anti Chinese feeling. At the time prejudice against Asians was
widespread and there were no laws against racial discrimination. They visited
67 hotels and 184 restaurants. Six months later, after their return, all the
establishments they had visited were sent a letter, asking whether they would
accept Chinese guests.
Results
They were only refused
at one of the establishments they visited, and were generally treated very
politely. Of the 128 establishments which responded to the letter, 91% said
they were not willing to accept Chinese guests.
Conclusion
Attitudes do not
always predict behavior. Cognitive and affective components of attitudes are
not necessarily expressed in behavior.
The LaPiere's study
shows that the cognitive and affective components of attitudes (e.g. disliking
Chinese people) do not necessarily coincide with behavior (e.g. serving them).
The strength with
which an attitude is held is often a good predictor of behavior. The stronger
the attitude the more likely it should affect behavior. Attitude strength
involves:
Importance / personal relevance refers to how significant the attitude
is for the person and relates to self-interest, social identification and
value. If an attitude has a high self-interest for a person (i.e. it is held by
a group the person is a member of or would like to be a member of, and is
related to a person's values), it is going to be extremely important.
As a consequence, the
attitude will have a very strong influence upon a person's behavior. By
contrast, an attitude will not be important to a person if it does not relate
in any way to their life.
The knowledge aspect of attitude strength covers how
much a person knows about the attitude object. People are generally more
knowledgeable about topics that interest them and are likely to hold strong
attitudes (positive or negative) as a consequence.
Attitudes based on
direct experience are more strongly held and influence behavior more than
attitudes formed indirectly (for example, through hear-say, reading or watching
television).
Attitudes can serve
functions for the individual. Daniel Katz (1960) outlines four functional
areas:
Knowledge
Attitudes provide
meaning (knowledge) for life. The knowledge function refers to our need
for a world which is consistent and relatively stable.
This allows us
to predict what
is likely to happen, and so gives us a sense of control. Attitudes can help us
organize and structure our experience.
Knowing a person’s
attitude helps us predict their behavior. For example, knowing that a person is
religious we can predict they will go to Church.
Self / Ego-expressive
The attitudes we
express (1) help communicate who
we are and (2) may make us feel good because we have asserted our
identity. Self-expression of attitudes can be non-verbal too: think
bumper sticker, cap, or T-shirt slogan.
Therefore, our
attitudes are part of our identify, and help us to be aware through the
expression of our feelings, beliefs and values.
Adaptive
If a person holds
and/or expresses socially acceptable attitudes, other people will reward them
with approval and social acceptance.
For example, when
people flatter their bosses or instructors (and believe it) or keep silent if
they think an attitude is unpopular. Again, expression can be nonverbal
[think politician kissing baby].
Attitudes then, are to
do with being apart of a social group and the adaptive functions helps us fit
in with a social group. People seek out others who share their attitudes, and
develop similar attitudes to those they like.
Ego-defensive
The ego-defensive
function refers to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or that justify actions
that make us feel guilty. For example, one way children might defend
themselves against the feelings of humiliation they have experienced in P.E.
lessons is to adopt a strongly negative attitude to all sports.
People whose pride
have suffered following a defeat in sport might similarly adopt a defensive
attitude: “I’m not bothered, I’m sick of rugby anyway…”. This function
has psychiatric overtones. Positive attitudes towards ourselves, for
example, have a protective function (i.e. an ego-defensive role) in helping us
reserve our self-image.
The basic idea behind
the functional approach is that attitudes help a person to mediate between
their own inner needs (expression, defense) and the outside world (adaptive and
knowledge).
The basic idea behind
the functional approach is that attitudes help a person to mediate between
their own inner needs (expression, defense) and the outside world (adaptive and
knowledge).
Imagine you are very
patriotic about being British. This might cause you to have an
ethnocentric attitude towards everything not British. Imagine further
that you are with a group of like-minded friends. You say:
“Of course, there’s no
other country as good as Britain to live in. Other places are alright in
their own way, but they can’t compare with your mother county.”
(There are nods of
approval all round. You are fitting in - adaptive). The people in the group are wearing
England football shirts (This is the self-expression function).
Then imagine you go on
to say:
“The trouble with
foreigners is that they don’t speak English. I went to France last year
and they were ignorant. Even if they could speak our language they wouldn’t do
so. I call that unfriendly.
(Others agree with you
and tell you of their similar experiences. You are making sense of
things. This is the knowledge function). Then someone who has never travelled takes things a
stage further…
“I don’t mind
foreigners coming here on holiday…but they shouldn’t be allowed to live
here….taking our jobs and living off social security. Britain for the British
is what I say….why is it getting so you can’t get a decent job in your own
country.”
(Now the others in the
room join in scapegoating foreigners and demonstrating the ego defensive function of attitudes).
High-Level Description
of the Sixteen Personality Types
ISTJ - The Duty Fulfiller
Serious and quiet, interested in security and peaceful living.
Extremely thorough, responsible, and dependable. Well-developed powers of
concentration. Usually interested in supporting and promoting traditions and
establishments. Well-organized and hard working, they work steadily towards
identified goals. They can usually accomplish any task once they have set their
mind to it.
Click here for a
detailed description of ISTJ.
ISTP - The Mechanic
Quiet and reserved, interested in how and why things work.
Excellent skills with mechanical things. Risk-takers who they live for the
moment. Usually interested in and talented at extreme sports. Uncomplicated in
their desires. Loyal to their peers and to their internal value systems, but
not overly concerned with respecting laws and rules if they get in the way of
getting something done. Detached and analytical, they excel at finding
solutions to practical problems.
Click here for a
detailed description of ISTP.
ISFJ - The Nurturer
Quiet, kind, and conscientious. Can be depended on to follow
through. Usually puts the needs of others above their own needs. Stable and
practical, they value security and traditions. Well-developed sense of space
and function. Rich inner world of observations about people. Extremely
perceptive of other's feelings. Interested in serving others.
Click here for a
detailed description of ISFJ.
ISFP - The Artist
Quiet, serious, sensitive and kind. Do not like conflict, and
not likely to do things which may generate conflict. Loyal and faithful.
Extremely well-developed senses, and aesthetic appreciation for beauty. Not
interested in leading or controlling others. Flexible and open-minded. Likely
to be original and creative. Enjoy the present moment.
Click here for a
detailed description of ISFP.
INFJ - The Protector
Quietly forceful, original, and sensitive. Tend to stick to
things until they are done. Extremely intuitive about people, and concerned for
their feelings. Well-developed value systems which they strictly adhere to.
Well-respected for their perserverence in doing the right thing. Likely to be
individualistic, rather than leading or following.
Click here for a
detailed description of INFJ.
INFP - The Idealist
Quiet, reflective, and idealistic. Interested in serving
humanity. Well-developed value system, which they strive to live in accordance
with. Extremely loyal. Adaptable and laid-back unless a strongly-held value is
threatened. Usually talented writers. Mentally quick, and able to see
possibilities. Interested in understanding and helping people.
Click here for a
detailed description of INFP.
INTJ - The Scientist
Independent, original, analytical, and determined. Have an
exceptional ability to turn theories into solid plans of action. Highly value
knowledge, competence, and structure. Driven to derive meaning from their
visions. Long-range thinkers. Have very high standards for their performance,
and the performance of others. Natural leaders, but will follow if they trust
existing leaders.
Click here for a
detailed description of INTJ.
INTP - The Thinker
Logical, original, creative thinkers. Can become very excited
about theories and ideas. Exceptionally capable and driven to turn theories
into clear understandings. Highly value knowledge, competence and logic. Quiet
and reserved, hard to get to know well. Individualistic, having no interest in
leading or following others.
Click here for a
detailed description of INTP.
ESTP - The Doer
Friendly, adaptable, action-oriented. "Doers" who are
focused on immediate results. Living in the here-and-now, they're risk-takers
who live fast-paced lifestyles. Impatient with long explanations. Extremely
loyal to their peers, but not usually respectful of laws and rules if they get
in the way of getting things done. Great people skills.
Click here for a
detailed description of ESTP.
ESTJ - The Guardian
Practical, traditional, and organized. Likely to be athletic.
Not interested in theory or abstraction unless they see the practical application.
Have clear visions of the way things should be. Loyal and hard-working. Like to
be in charge. Exceptionally capable in organizing and running activities.
"Good citizens" who value security and peaceful living.
Click here for a
detailed description of ESTJ.
ESFP - The Performer
People-oriented and fun-loving, they make things more fun for
others by their enjoyment. Living for the moment, they love new experiences.
They dislike theory and impersonal analysis. Interested in serving others.
Likely to be the center of attention in social situations. Well-developed
common sense and practical ability.
Click here for a
detailed description of ESFP.
ESFJ - The Caregiver
Warm-hearted, popular, and conscientious. Tend to put the needs
of others over their own needs. Feel strong sense of responsibility and duty.
Value traditions and security. Interested in serving others. Need positive
reinforcement to feel good about themselves. Well-developed sense of space and
function.
Click here for a
detailed description of ESFJ.
ENFP - The Inspirer
Enthusiastic, idealistic, and creative. Able to do almost
anything that interests them. Great people skills. Need to live life in
accordance with their inner values. Excited by new ideas, but bored with
details. Open-minded and flexible, with a broad range of interests and
abilities.
Click here for a
detailed description of ENFP.
ENFJ - The Giver
Popular and sensitive, with outstanding people skills.
Externally focused, with real concern for how others think and feel. Usually
dislike being alone. They see everything from the human angle, and dislike
impersonal analysis. Very effective at managing people issues, and leading
group discussions. Interested in serving others, and probably place the needs
of others over their own needs.
Click here for a
detailed description of ENFJ.
ENTP - The Visionary
Creative, resourceful, and intellectually quick. Good at a broad
range of things. Enjoy debating issues, and may be into
"one-up-manship". They get very excited about new ideas and projects,
but may neglect the more routine aspects of life. Generally outspoken and
assertive. They enjoy people and are stimulating company. Excellent ability to
understand concepts and apply logic to find solutions.
Click here for a
detailed description of ENTP.
ENTJ - The Executive
Assertive and outspoken - they are driven to lead. Excellent
ability to understand difficult organizational problems and create solid
solutions. Intelligent and well-informed, they usually excel at public
speaking. They value knowledge and competence, and usually have little patience
with inefficiency or disorganization.
Click here for a
detailed description of ENTJ.
PERSONALITY TYPES
Analysts
Imaginative and strategic
thinkers, with a plan for everything.
Innovative inventors with
an unquenchable thirst for knowledge.
Bold, imaginative and
strong-willed leaders, always finding a way – or making one.
Smart and curious
thinkers who cannot resist an intellectual challenge.
Diplomats
Quiet and mystical, yet
very inspiring and tireless idealists.
Poetic, kind and
altruistic people, always eager to help a good cause.
Charismatic and inspiring
leaders, able to mesmerize their listeners.
Enthusiastic, creative
and sociable free spirits, who can always find a reason to smile.
Sentinels
Practical and fact-minded
individuals, whose reliability cannot be doubted.
Very
dedicated and warm protectors, always ready to defend their loved ones.
Excellent administrators,
unsurpassed at managing things – or people.
Extraordinarily caring,
social and popular people, always eager to help.
Explorers
Bold and practical
experimenters, masters of all kinds of tools.
Flexible and charming
artists, always ready to explore and experience something new.
Smart, energetic and very
perceptive people, who truly enjoy living on the edge.
Spontaneous, energetic
and enthusiastic people – life is never boring around them.
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